Essay The State of the Pre-Reformation Church - 582 Words

The State of the Pre-Reformation Church There are various ideas about the state of the church before the Reformation. Some individuals say that the church was still considered to be a pillar of hope and comfort for the English people to look up to and gain reassurance from in the 1500s. Others however say that the church was in a horrific state, promoting wrong doing and malevolence. The question to be further considered is whether the church during the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries fulfilled its functions while keeping the good English people satisfied. It has been argued that the pre-reformation church was a corrupt and failing institution and therefore Henry had to†¦show more content†¦A Bishop was also obliged to attend Parliament, as he owed the service of counsel to the king, but not many attended regularly. Another grievance towards the Bishops was sexual irregularity with many Bishops seemingly ignoring their vow of chastity by having mistresses and illegitimate children. Neglect of the care of souls and simony were also attributed to the Bishops. The lower clergy and parish priests on the other hand were viewed as both rapacious and ignorant. They were very important for the vast majority of the English people, living in isolated rural communities as they were the only effective representatives of the universal church. Therefore, if they were ineffective many peasants would suffer. According to figures quoted by G R Elton this could be true. Educational standards were very low, so it was fairly easy for somebody to become a parish priest. A sixteenth century survey of the diocese of Gloucester showed that out of 311 clergy 168 could not recite the Ten Commandments, and 33 could not locate them in the Bible. 10 could recite the Lords Prayer, and 39 did not know where to find it in the Bible. Between 1500-50, 869 East Anglican clergy died and left wills and these reveal that only 158 possessed any books at all, and only 17 left Bibles. This would undoubtedly be aShow MoreRelated Henry VIIIs Reformation Essay1025 Words   |à ‚  5 Pages Henry VIIIs Reformation In 1529 Henry VIII started to reform the Catholic Church in England, however there are different opinions as to why he began these controversial changes. The orthodox view concurs that there was a vast anti-clerical feeling in 16th century England; the corrupt church was unpopular with the masses. However the revisionist view claims that the reformation was actually due to politics. 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The articles objective is to explain how things came to be as they are institutionally and ideology in the contemporary Western world and to provide an explanation of how the past became the present. According

The Start of Something New free essay sample

The fall from the top always hurts when you hit the bottom. After 10 years of competitive swimming I was at the top of my game. I was one of the best swimmers on my team and had made friends all over the state of Connecticut through various swim meets. However, after my switch to rowing at the start of my junior year, I plummeted to the bottom. I was a ghost. No one knew me and no one wanted to know me. Because I was nobody, just another kid walking through the boat house doors going to practice. But I wanted to reclaim my glory. I wanted to be back on the top. I made rowing the most single important thing in my life junior year. I constantly reached out to my teammates. I looked for any advice that could aid in my improvement in this new terrain of athletics. I listened to my coaches, and my captains; trying to harness any bit of information that could help me in my conquest to return to the top. We will write a custom essay sample on The Start of Something New or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page But this was not easy. Everyone on my team had skills that were far superior to mine. I stood alone as the only novice rower on the varsity team. To me this didn’t matter. I let nothing stand in my way of improving my rowing skills. While other kids were staying out late on weekends, I was preparing myself for an early morning practice out on the water. Whenever I got to practice, I went straight to work. I constantly reminded myself of what must be done in order to achieve my goals. Before long my hard work and determination was noticed by my coaches. They placed me in the lightweight varsity 8 boat along with 7 other great rowers who had been participating in this sport for years. I immediately connected to the others kids in my boat. We all pushed one another and worked as a team in order to accomplish what needed to be done. Each of us rowed together in harmony transforming 8 individuals into one single entity. Our abilities to work together as one earned our spot in the Youth Rowing Nationals in Oakridge, Tennessee, one of the most competitive rowing events for high school students. I was back on the top. Although I fell, I was able to pick myself up. My hard work and determination paid off. I was given the award of Best Novice and I finally felt welcomed as I stood alongside my rowing brothers. I faced many challenges and made many sacrifices but none of that mattered to me in the end. Out of ashes I rose and I began my climb to the top, and I will never stop that climb.

Jessica Hagen Essays - Afrikaner People, White South African People

Jessica Hagen Ethno-Film Study The Boer War The Boer War was the struggle of the Boers, or Dutch descent farmers, to keep the power of their land away from the British. They wanted to control their own land, and they were not going to let the British have an easy take over. The Boer War is also known as the South African War, and was fought from 1899 to 1902 (World 435). The British learned of resources they could use in the African area and there was a major struggle over who would control the area. This war was known as a ?gentlemen's war', the ?last Colonial war', and the ?forgotten war' (1). This was a major bloodbath, yet it was overshadowed and forgotten because of World War I. This was the biggest war fought by Britain in Africa (2). The Boers were people of Dutch, German, or French ancestry that lived in South Africa (World 436). Many of these people were farmers; the word Boer is actually a Dutch word meaning farmer (World 436). They felt that the British should not be able to take supremacy in their colonies, and they refused to be under control of the British King. The British felt that they would easily take over they South African colonies. It is quoted that they felt this "colonial conflict" would be over and settled in time for them to be "home for Christmas" (2). The British were very wrong by entering the conflict with such an overwhelming confidence. They did not realize that the Boers cherished their land and independence, and they would fight with passion and strength to keep their freedom. The Britain government and army underestimate the Boers. The Boers had an unconventional way of fighting and their "guerilla warfare hit and run tactics" (2) were not easy for the British army to fight. The war that the British Empire felt would be an easy take over led to a four-year battle. The British began using "blockhouse lines," which is a "scorched earth" policy (2). They had to resort to desperate measures because they were not able to handle the "swift-moving, mounted farmers armed with deadly Mauser rifles and bitter determination" (1). A fter the British began destroying anything that they came into contact with the Boers decided it was in their best interest to sign the peace treaty of Vereeniging on May 31, 1902 (2). The Boers were not punished for participating in the war; however, they had to sign a contract of faithfulness to King Edward VII (World 436). Although this war is said to be forgotten, the determination of the Boers to keep their freedom can never be forgotten by the British that underestimated them.

Chinas Treatment of Its Growing Elderly Population

China's Treatment of Its Growing Elderly Population Chinas famous one-child policy had an aftereffect of creating a larger elderly population. Westerners often hear about how much regard the Chinese have for the elderly, but as China grows old, a number of challenges potentially await the emerging superpower. With this review of the elderly in China, better your understanding of how old people are treated in the country and the impact of a rapidly aging population there. Statistics About the Aging Population   The population of the elderly (60 or older) in China is about 128 million, or one in every 10 people. By some estimates, that puts Chinas sheer number of senior citizens at the largest in the world. It is estimated that China could have up to 400 million people over 60 years of age by the year 2050. But how will China address its masses of senior citizens? The country has changed dramatically in recent years. This includes the changing of its family structure. In traditional Chinese society, the elderly used to live with one of their children. But today more and more young adults are moving out, leaving their elderly parents alone. This means that the new generation of elderly people may not have family members to tend to their needs, as young people in the country traditionally have.   On the other hand, many young couples are living with their parents because of economic factors and not because of tradition. These young adults simply cannot afford to buy a house of their own or rent an apartment. Experts say family-based care is now impractical because most middle-aged children have little time to take care of their parents. So, one of the things the elderly have to face in 21st century China is how to live out their twilight years when their families cant take care of them. Older people living alone is not an anomaly in China. A nationwide survey found that about 23 percent of Chinas seniors over the age of 65 live by themselves. Another survey conducted in Beijing showed that fewer than 50 percent of elderly women live with their children. Housing for the Elderly Since more and more elderly  live alone, homes for the elderly arent enough to meet their needs. One report found that  Beijings 289 pension houses could accommodate only 9,924 people  or 0.6 percent of the population above age 60. To better serve the elderly, Beijing adopted regulations to encourage private and foreign investment in homes for the elderly.   Some officials believe that the problems facing Chinas elderly can be solved through combined efforts from family, the local community, and society as a whole. Chinas goal is to establish a support network for senior citizens that provides medical care and helps them avoid loneliness through scholarly pursuits and entertainment. The network would also encourage  senior citizens to continue serving society after retirement age by using the knowledge theyve acquired over the years. As Chinas population ages, the nation will also have to take a hard look at how this shift will affect its ability to compete on the world stage.

Factors affecting learners behaviour in Gauteng Special School, SA Research Proposal

Factors affecting learners behaviour in Gauteng Special School, SA - Research Proposal Example Intellectual disability usually becomes evident during the developmental years’ (IHC Inc; Philosophy and Policy 1996: p 5). In the contemporary times, the concept of disability has moved beyond the constraints of the medical terminology and has embraced a socially relevant stance keeping their all round welfare as the main objective in all their policies and plans. Terzi (2004) believes that the social model is as a powerful and important reminder for people at large to face issues of inclusion vis-a-vis persons with disability, disadvantaged population as fundamental and moral issues. World Health Organization (2005) reports that people with disabilities are important contributors to society and that allocating resources to their rehabilitation would be an investment. Hence, measures that support their integration to mainstream society become highly pertinent issues within the develop agenda of nations. The inclusion of disabled students can be broadly described as efforts to increase the participation of children with disability in the school by expanding course curricula to incorporate their needs (Booth & Ainscow, 1998). Thus inclusion ensures that students with special needs are provided with opportunities to imbibe education and become capable of contributing t the society as a whole. The integration whereas is the inclusion of students with special need within the mainstream school without much changes within the school environment (Minto, 2007; Mittler, 2000). The special schools in South Africa have shown great determination to promote education amongst the children and adults with disability. There have been significant reforms in the education system with National Education Policy Act of 1996 and the South African Schools Act of 1996.... This discussion stresses that the behavioural problem of pupils with intellectual disabilities is important issue that needs to be looked from the wider perspective of social development. While the special schools are doing commendable work for people with disability, the increasingly worsening behaviour of the pupils with developmental disabilities has become a major concern. Thus, this research would focus on identifying the factors that affect learners’ behaviour in the special schools, especially in Gauteng, South Africa. This paper declares that the inclusion of disabled students can be broadly described as efforts to increase the participation of children with disability in the school by expanding course curricula to incorporate their needs. Thus inclusion ensures that students with special needs are provided with opportunities to imbibe education and become capable of contributing t the society as a whole. The integration whereas is the inclusion of students with special need within the mainstream school without much changes within the school environment. The special schools in South Africa have shown great determination to promote education amongst the children and adults with disability. Special schools were also established to include all those children whose disabilities may hinder them from benefiting from education that they are entitled to. The special schools in Gauteng have been distinct in catering to the myriad needs of children with disability

Globalisation - challenges for ceos and solutions Essay

Globalisation - challenges for ceos and solutions - Essay Example Globalization has been a part of human evolution over the centuries. The first phase of globalization occurred from the 1870s to World War I, this was accompanied by industrialization and increase in global trade. The second phase is said to have begun with the end of the Cold war in the 1990's. Technology and communications have been the drivers of this phase. (Parrett: 2005). "Globalization" implies economic integration of nations through trade, investment, production, flow of capital, information technology, joint ventures, mergers and acquisitions and other related activities. (Phua : 2004 ). It is essential to understand the scope and dimensions of globalization to enable business benefit from the opportunities for growth as well as the perils. The role of a CEO in the integrated World of tomorrow is all important. However the exact dimensions of the challenges faced by CEOs and their role thereof in the global environment have not been fully defined. Globalization is also takin g place in diverse environments geographically, politically and socially, thus the challenges faced by the CEOs are varied. It is therefore essential that we undertake an analysis of this essential facet as it will define the social as well business environment of the future. (Napolitano: 2006)The role of globalization in the growth of business has been well recognized in recent times. Globalization today is driven by policy changes where governments have reduced the obstacles for trade, thereby making it a tool for development. (Bhagwati : 2004). In a survey of CEOs carried out in the United States, over 75 percent of the CEOs identified international customers, consumers and employees as more important and approximately 70 percent determined reduction in the role of labor unions. With growth opportunities limited at home, it was also identified that expansion of market share was important for growth for which globalization provided the ideal vehicle. (NIST Survey :1998). The chall enge of globalization for companies is to harmonize local sensitivities to the harsh realties of competitive business in the international arena. (Duncan: 2002). Globalization is also driving competition and hence creating new opportunities. These need to be seized and companies should position themselves to take advantage of the situation. (Parrett: 2005). Globalization also creates complexity, this creates a need for the CEOs to explain and manage this complexity successfully. (CEO Survey). Globalization has created economies of scale at an international level creating beneficiaries from variations in inflation; savings, competition, and job creation in say China with low-cost manufacturing which has kept inflation low. (Parrett: 2005). Role of CEOs The CEO has a major role to play in sustaining corporate continuity in a cohesive manner to include intangible facets as customer satisfaction, product and service quality, ethical conduct and reputation, operational performance, and employee commitment. (Parrett: 2005). The CEO has to transact with the society as a whole and particularly its three major constituents, other companies, government, and civil society. (Napolitano: 2006). The CEO has to seamlessly link the organization globally and locally by synergizing its goals and aspirations in both the dimensions. (Napolitano: 2006). A CEO should be sensitive to ensure that the organizations goals and operations are not creating resentment in society which in the final analysis would damage the company in the longer run. (Napolitano: 2006). A CEOs role is perceived as a partner rather than a leader. It has a lot to do with effective management of the company, its external involvement as well as the government. (Global Corporate Citizenship : 2003). Nearly 80 percent of CEOs say they have made reducing unnecessary complexity a personal priority. Their primary focus areas are information

Comparing Schools Essay Example for Free

Comparing Schools Essay This report provides advice on the collection and reporting of information about the performances of Australian schools. The focus is on the collection of nationally comparable data. Two purposes are envisaged: use by education authorities and governments to monitor school performances and, in particular, to identify schools that are performing unusually well or unusually poorly given their circumstances; and use by parents/caregivers and the public to make informed judgements about, and meaningful comparisons of, schools and their offerings. Our advice is based on a review of recent Australian and international research and experience in reporting on the performances of schools. This is an area of educational practice in which there have been many recent developments, much debate and a growing body of relevant research. Our work is framed by recent agreements of the Council of Australian Governments (COAG), in particular, at its meeting on 29 November 2008: C OAG agreed that the new Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority will be supplied with the information necessary to enable it to publish relevant, nationally-comparable information on all schools to support accountability, school evaluation, collaborative policy development and resource allocation. The Authority will provide the public with information on each school in Australia that includes data on each school’s performance, including national testing results and school attainment rates, the indicators relevant to the needs of the student population and the school’s capacity including the numbers and qualifications of its teaching staff and its resources. The publication of this information will allow comparison of like schools (that is, schools with similar student populations across the nation) and comparison of a school with other schools in their local community. (COAG Meeting Outcomes) Our work also has been framed by the recently endorsed MCEETYA Principles for Reporting Information on Schooling (see Section 1. 4). Before summarising our specific recommendations, there are some general conclusions that we have reached from our review of international research and experience. The specific recommendations that follow are best understood in the context of these general conclusions: †¢ Vigilance is required to ensure that nationally comparable data on individual schools does not have the unintended consequence of focusing attention on some aspects of the purposes of schooling at the expense of other outcomes that are as important but not as easily measurable. Parents/caregivers and the public are interested in a broad range of information about schools, and nationally comparable data should be reported in the context of this broader information. †¢ Although it has become popular in education systems in some other parts of the world to use statistical models to develop ‘measures’ of school performance and to report these measures publicly in league tables, we believe that there are very v Reporting and Comparing School Performances  sound technical and educational reasons why school measures of this kind should not be used for public reporting and school comparisons. †¢ Related to this point, we are not convinced of the value of reporting ‘adjusted’ measures of student outcomes publicly. Measures of student outcomes should be reported without adjustment. †¢ To enable the comparison of unadjusted student outcomes across schools, we believe that a ‘like-schools’ methodology should be used. This methodology would allow parents/caregivers, the public, and education systems to compare outcomes for schools in similar circumstances. †¢ While point-in-time measures of student outcomes often are useful, it is difficult to establish the contributions that teachers and schools make to point-in-time outcomes. In general, measures of student gain/growth across the years of school provide a more useful basis for making judgements about the value that schools are adding. †¢ Measures of gain/growth are most appropriately based on measurement scales that can be used to monitor student progress across the years of school. The NAPLAN measurement scales are an example and provide educational data superior to that available in most other countries. Consideration should be given to developing national measurement scales for early literacy learning and in some subjects of the national curriculum. †¢ Initially reporting should build on the understandings that parents and the public have already developed. For example a school’s NAPLAN results should be reported in forms that are consistent with current NAPLAN reports for students. Although much work needs to be done in defining the most appropriate measures, the principle should be to build on the representations of data that are already familiar to people. Recommendations Our report makes the following specific recommendations: student outcome measures †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the literacy and numeracy skills of students in each school, using NAPLAN (Years 3, 5, 7 and 9). †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the tertiary entrance results of students in each senior secondary school. These data could be reported as the percentage of students achieving tertiary entrance ranks of 60 or above, 70 or above, 80 or above, and 90 or above (calculated as a percentage of the students achieving tertiary entrance ranks). †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the percentage of students in each senior secondary school completing Year 12 or equivalent; the percentage of students applying to all forms of post-school education; and the percentage of students completing VET studies. vi Reporting and Comparing School Performances †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the achievements of students in core national curriculum subjects (English, mathematics, science and history), beginning in 2010. National assessments could be developed initially at Year 10. †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the early literacy learning of children in each primary school. These assessments will need to be developed and should be administered upon entry to school and used as a baseline for monitoring progress across the first few years of school. physical and human resources †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected about sources and amounts of funding received by each school, including all income to the school from State and Commonwealth governments, as well as details of fees payable by parents, including those that are mandatory and any voluntary levies that parents are expected to pay. †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the numbers and qualifications of teaching staff in each school. Basic data would include academic qualifications, details of pre-service teacher education, and details of any advanced certification (eg, Advanced Skills Teacher; Level 3 Teacher). student intake characteristics †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the socio-economic backgrounds of students in each school. Data should be based on information collected at the individual student level, using at least parental occupation and, possibly, parental education levels, under the agreed MCEETYA definitions. †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the percentage of students in each school of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander background under the agreed MCEETYA definition. †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the percentage of students in each school identified as having a language background other than English (LBOTE) under the agreed MCEETYA definition. †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the geo-location of each school using a 3-category scale: metropolitan, provincial, and remote. †¢ Nationally comparable data should be collected on the percentage of students in each school with special educational needs. A nationally agreed definition of this category will need to be developed. like-school comparisons †¢ In reporting student outcome data for a school, data for like-schools should be provided as a point of comparison. Like-schools will be schools in similar circumstances and facing similar challenges. †¢ In determining ‘like-schools’, account should be taken of the percentage of students with Indigenous backgrounds, the socio-economic backgrounds of the students in the school, and the percentage of students from language backgrounds other than English. vii Reporting and Comparing School Performances †¢ For each school separately, like-schools should be identified as the schools most similar to that school on the above characteristics (rather than pre-defining a limited number of like-school categories). †¢ Work should commence as soon as possible on the development of an appropriate like-schools methodology. public reporting †¢ For the purpose of providing public information about schools, a common national website should be used to provide parents/caregivers and the public with access to rich information about individual schools. †¢ The national website should provide information about each school’s programs, philosophies, values and purposes, provided by the school itself, as well as nationally comparable data, provided centrally. †¢ Nationally comparable student outcome data should, wherever possible, provide information about current levels of attainment (ie, status), gain/growth across the years of school, and improvement in a school over time. †¢ The complete database for each state/territory should be made available to the relevant state/territory departments of education and other employing authorities, enabling them to interrogate data for their schools and to make judgments about school performances using aggregated data and national summary statistics. We believe that almost all nationally comparable data collected centrally could be reported publicly. The exceptions would arise when the public reporting of data may have negative and unintended consequences for schools. For example, we can envisage negative consequences arising from the reporting of the socio-economic backgrounds of students in a school, or of the financial circumstances of struggling, small schools (both government and non-government). We also believe that data reported publicly should be factual data about a school, and not the results of secondary analyses and interpretations that are open to debate (eg, value-added measures). viii Reporting and Comparing School Performances 1. INTRODUCTION In education, good decision making is facilitated by access to relevant, reliable and timely information. Dependable information is required at all levels of educational decision making to identify areas of deficiency and special need, to monitor progress towards goals, to evaluate the effectiveness of special interventions and initiatives, and to make decisions in the best interests of individual learners. The focus of this  paper is on the provision and use of information about individual schools. The starting point is the observation that relevant and reliable information about schools is required by a range of decision makers – including parents and caregivers, school principals and school leadership teams, system managers and governments, and the general public – all of whom require dependable information that they can use to maximise opportunities and outcomes for students. 1. 1 Audiences and Purposes  Parents and caregivers require valid and reliable information to evaluate the quality of the education their children are receiving, to make informed decisions in the best interests of individual students, and to become active partners in their children’s learning. They require dependable information about the progress individuals have made (the knowledge, skills and understandings developed through instruction), about teachers’ plans for future learning, and about what they can do to assist. There is also considerable evidence that parents and caregivers want information about how their children are performing in comparison with other children of the same age. And, if they are to make judgements about the quality of the education their children are receiving, they require information that enables meaningful comparisons across schools. School leaders require reliable information on student and school performances for effective school management. Research into factors underpinning school  effectiveness highlights the importance of the school leader’s role in establishing an environment in which student learning is accorded a central focus, and goals for improved performance are developed collaboratively by staff with a commitment to achieving them. School managers require dependable pictures of how well students in a school are performing, both with respect to school goals for improvement and with respect to past achievements and achievements in other, comparable schools. Governments and system managers require dependable information on the performance and progress of individual schools if they are to exercise their responsibilities for the delivery of quality education to all students. Effective management depends on an ability to monitor system-wide and school performances over time, to gauge the effectiveness of special programs and targeted resource allocations, to monitor the impact of policies, and to evaluate the success of initiatives aimed at traditionally disadvantaged and underachieving sections of the student population. Accurate, reliable information allows system managers to measure progress against past performances, to identify schools and issues requiring special attention, to target resources appropriately, and to set goals for future improvement. 1 Reporting and Comparing School Performances 1. 2 Forms of Information Because there are multiple audiences and purposes for information about schools, the forms of information required for effective decision making are different for different stakeholders. Parents and caregivers require a wide range of information, including information relating to their immediate needs (eg, Is the school easily accessible by public transport? Does it have an after-school program? What fees and/or levies does it charge? ); the ethos of the school (eg, What evidence is there of bullying/harassment? What are the espoused values of the school? Do students wear uniforms? What level of discipline is imposed? Who is the principal? ); their child’s likely educational experience (eg, Who will be my child’s teacher next year? Will they be in a composite class? How large will the class be? Does the school have a literacy intervention program? What extra-curricular activities are provided? ); and the school’s educational results (eg, Does the school achieve outstanding Year 12 results? ). School leaders require other forms of information, including information relating to staffing and resources (eg, What resources are available for music next year? How many beginning children have special learning needs? ); the effectiveness of initiatives (eg, Is there any evidence that the extra class time allocated to literacy this year made a difference?); and academic results (eg, How many Year 5 students did not meet the minimum performance standard in Reading? Have our results improved since last year? Are we still below the state average? How did last year’s Year 12 results compare with those of the neighbouring school? ). System managers and governments require still other forms of information, including information to monitor system-wide trends over time, to evaluate the effectiveness of attempts to raise standards and close gaps, and to identify schools that are performing unusually well or unusually poorly given their circumstances. In general, the schoollevel information required by system managers and governments is less fine-grained than the information required by parents, teachers and school leaders. Figure 1 displays schematically various forms of information that could be made available about a school, either publicly or to specific audiences (eg, system managers). The forms of evidence represented in Figure 1 are: A: student outcome measures that a school could choose to report Most schools report a wide range of information about the achievements of their students to their school communities. This information is reported in school newsletters, local and community newspapers, school websites, and at school events. The information includes details of Year 12 results, analyses of postschool destinations, results in national mathematics and science competitions, language certificates, awards, prizes, extra-curricular achievements, community recognition, and so on. Most schools take every opportunity to celebrate the achievements of their students and to announce these achievements publicly. 2 Reporting and Comparing School Performances Figure 1. Forms of information that could be made available about a school B:a sub-set of student outcome measures on which it is agreed to collect nationally comparable data Within the set of student outcome information that might be reported for a school, there could be a sub-set of outcomes on which it was agreed to collect nationally comparable data. A reason for identifying such a sub-set would be to ensure some common measures to facilitate school comparisons – within a local geographical area, across an entire education system, nationally, or within a group of ‘like’ schools. Inevitably, nationally comparable data would be collected for only some of the outcomes that schools, parents and communities value. Performances on common literacy and numeracy tests in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 are an example of nationally comparable data currently in this category. C. physical and human resources measures that a school could choose to report Schools provide information in various forms and to various audiences about their physical and human resources. Information of this kind includes details of staff qualifications and teaching experience, staff turnover rates, school global budgets, computers and other technology, newly constructed facilities, bequests, results of fundraising drives, and so on. Some of this information may be reported to the school community; some may be kept confidential to the school, education system or government departments. D: a sub-set of physical and human resources measures on which it is agreed to collect nationally comparable data Within the set of physical and human resources measures reported for a school, there could be a sub-set of measures on which it was agreed to collect nationally comparable data. For example, there have been recent calls for greater consistency and transparency in the reporting of school funding arrangements (Dowling, 2007; 2008) and for more consistent national approaches to assessing and recognising teacher quality (Dinham, et al, 2008). 3 Reporting and Comparing School Performances E. student intake measures that a school could choose to report Most schools have considerable information about their students. For example, they may have information about students’ language backgrounds, Indigenous status, socio-economic backgrounds, learning difficulties and disabilities. This information usually is reported only within education systems or to governments and is not reported publicly, although schools sometimes provide information to their communities about the range of languages spoken by students in the school, the countries from which they come, the percentage of Indigenous students in the school and the school’s special Indigenous programs, or the number of severely disabled students and the facilities and support provided for these students. F: a sub-set of student intake measures on which it is agreed to collect nationally comparable data. Within the set of student intake characteristics reported for a school, there could be a sub-set of measures on which it was agreed to collect nationally comparable data. Some progress has been made toward nationally consistent definitions and nationally consistent data collections on student background characteristics. G. all other information that a school could choose to make available Beyond information about student outcomes, student backgrounds and their physical and human resources, schools provide a range of other information to the communities they serve. 1. 3 Nationally Comparable Data Acknowledging the many purposes and audiences for information about schools, and the various forms that this information can take, the specific focus of this paper is on the collection and reporting of nationally comparable data for the purposes of evaluating and comparing school performances. In other words, the focus is on categories B, D and F in Figure 1. We envisage three broad uses of such data: †¢ use by parents and caregivers in judging the quality of educational provision and in making informed decisions in the best interests of individual students; †¢ use by school leaders in monitoring a school’s improvement and benchmarking the school’s performance against other, comparable schools; and †¢ use by education systems and governments in identifying schools that are performing unusually well or unusually poorly given their circumstances. As noted above, these three stakeholder groups are likely to have different needs. The ways in which nationally comparable data are analysed, combined and reported may be different for different purposes. We see the process of reaching agreement on the core data that should be available about a school as a national collaborative process, and see little value in arriving at different conclusions about these data for different parts of the country. 4 Reporting and Comparing School Performances 1. 4 Principles for Reporting The Principles for Reporting Information on Schooling (see pages 6-7) adopted by the Ministerial Council for Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCCETYA) provide an important point of reference for any proposed collection and use of nationally comparable data on schools. These principles recognise the multiple audiences and purposes for information about schools, the need to collect broad evidence about student and school performances, and the desirability of monitoring intended and unintended consequences of reporting information on schools. Australian governments have undertaken to ensure that data provided for the purposes of comparing schools are reliable and fair and take into account the contexts in which schools work. Governments also have undertaken not to develop simplistic league tables of school performances. 1. 5 Structure of Paper This paper first considers the kinds of nationally comparable data that might be collected about schools for the purposes outlined above. We draw on national and international research and experience, attempt to anticipate the likely requirements of different audiences, and take into account what measures currently exist and what additional measures might be desirable in the future. Each of the three data categories in Figure 1 is considered in turn: †¢ †¢ †¢ student outcome measures physical and human resources measures student intake measures (sections 2-3) (section 4) (section 5) We then consider alternative ways of evaluating and comparing school performances. Two broad methodologies are discussed: †¢ †¢ the direct comparison of student outcomes the construction of measures of school performance (section 6) (section 7) Finally, we consider issues in reporting publicly on the performances of schools: †¢ †¢ audiences and purposes for reporting options for public reporting on schools (section 8) (section 9) 5 Reporting and Comparing School Performances MCEETYA PRINCIPLES FOR REPORTING INFORMATION ON SCHOOLING There is a vast amount of information on Australian schooling and individual schools. This includes information about the educational approach of schools, their enrolment profile, staffing, facilities and programs, and the education environment they offer, as well as information on the performance of students, schools and systems. Different groups, including schools and their students, parents and families, the community and governments, have different information needs. The following principles provide guidance on requirements for information on schooling, including the types of information that should be made readily available to each of the groups noted above. These principles will be supported by an agreed set of national protocols on the access to and use of information on schooling. Good quality information on schooling is important: FOR SCHOOLS AND THEIR STUDENTS. Principle 1: Schools need reliable, rich data on the performance of their students because they have the primary accountability for improving student outcomes. Good quality data supports each school to improve outcomes for all of their students. It supports effective diagnosis of student progress and the design of quality learning programs. It also informs schools’ approaches to provision of programs, school policies, pursuit and allocation of resources, relationships with parents and partnerships with community and business. Schools should have access to: †¢ Comprehensive data on the performance of their own students that uses a broad set of indicators †¢ Data that enables each school to compare its own performance against all schools and with schools of similar characteristics †¢ Data demonstrating improvements of the school over time †¢ Data enabling the school to benchmark its own performance against that of the bestperforming schools in their jurisdiction and nationally FOR PARENTS AND FAMILIES. Principle 2: Information about schooling, including data on the performance of individuals, schools and systems, helps parents and families to make informed choices and to engage with their children’s education and the school community. Parents and families should have access to: †¢ Information about the philosophy and educational approach of schools, and their staffing, facilities, programs and extra-curricular activities that enables parents and families to compare the education environment offered by schools †¢ Information about a school’s enrolment profile, taking care not to use data on student 1  characteristics in a way that may stigmatise schools or undermine social inclusion. †¢ Data on student outcomes that enables them to monitor the individual performance of their child, including what their child knows and is able to do and how this relates to what is expected for their age group, and how they can contribute to their child’s progress †¢ Information that allows them to assess a school’s performance overall and in improving student outcomes, including in relation to other schools with similar characteristics in their jurisdiction and nationally. 1 Any use or publication of information relating to a school’s enrolment profile should ensure that the privacy of individual students is protected. For example, where the small size of a school population or of a specific student cohort may enable identification of individual students, publication of this information should be avoided. 6 Reporting and Comparing School Performances FOR THE COMMUNITY. Principle 3: The community should have access to information that enables an understanding of the decisions taken by governments and the status and performance of schooling in Australia, to ensure schools are accountable for the results they achieve with the public funding they receive, and governments are accountable for the decisions they take. Students are an important part of our society and take up a variety of roles within it after leaving school. The community is therefore a direct and indirect consumer of the product of our schools, as well as providing the means of public funding. Information about schools in the public domain fulfils the requirement that schools be accountable for the results they achieve with the public funding they receive, including relative to other ‘like’ schools; it should also give the community a broad picture of school performance and a sense of confidence in our school systems. The community should have access to: †¢ Information about the philosophy and educational approach of schools, and their staffing, facilities, programs and extra-curricular activities that enables the community to compare the education environment offered by schools. †¢ Information about individual schools’ enrolment profile, taking care not to use data on student characteristics in a way that may stigmatise schools or undermine social inclusion †¢ National reporting on the performance of all schools with data that allows them to view a school’s performance overall and in improving student outcomes, including in relation to other schools with similar characteristics RESPONSIBLE PROVISION OF SCHOOLING INFORMATION Australian Governments will ensure that school-based information is published responsibly so that: †¢ any public comparisons of schools will be fair, contain accurate and verified data, contextual information and a range of indicators to provide a more reliable and complete view of performance (for example, information on income, student body characteristics, the spread of student outcomes and information on the value added by schools) †¢ governments will not devise simplistic league tables or rankings and will put in place strategies to manage the risk that third parties may seek to produce such tables or rankings, and will ensure that privacy will be protected. †¢ reports providing information on schooling for parents and families and the community will be developed based on research on what these groups want to know and the most effective ways the information can be presented and communicated. FOR GOVERNMENTS Principle 4: Governments need sound information on school performance to support ongoing improvement for students, schools and systems. Government also need to monitor and evaluate the impacts (intended and unintended) of the use and release of this information to improve its application over time. Good quality information on schooling enables governments to: †¢ analyse how well schools are performing †¢ identify schools with particular needs †¢ determine where resources are most needed to lift attainment †¢ identify best practice and innovation in high-performing schools that can be mainstreamed and used to support improvements in schools with poorer performance †¢ conduct national and international comparisons of approaches and performance †¢ develop a substantive evidence base on what works. This will enable future improvements in school performance that support the achievement of the agreed education outcomes of both the Ministerial Council for Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs and the Council of Australian Governments. 7 Reporting and Comparing School Performances 2. STUDENT OUTCOMES Information about the outcomes of a school’s efforts is key information for parents and caregivers if they are to judge the quality of educational provision; for school leaders to monitor a school’s performance and improvement; and for education systems and governments to identify schools in need of additional support. However, schools work to promote many different kinds of outcomes for their students. For some schools, an important objective is to improve school attendance rates. For others, assisting students to make successful transitions into the workforce is a high priority. Some schools are more focused than others on supporting the social, spiritual and emotional development of students. Still others measure their success in terms of entry rates into highly sought-after university courses. Decisions about the outcomes to be reported publicly for schools are important because they influence judgements about how well individual schools are performing. This is particularly true when education systems and governments attempt to construct ‘measures’ of school performance: Perverse incentives can arise when the [school] performance measure has both a large impact upon actors and focuses on an aspect of schooling that does not reflect the true or overall purpose and objectives of schools. Unfortunately, this can be common in school performance measures if the performance measure is too narrowly defined. (OECD, 2008, 26).